TUMOR PARU

1. DEFINISI
Tumor adalah neoplasma pada jaringan yaitu pertumbuhan jaringan baru yang abnormal. Paru merupakan organ elastis berbentuk kerucut dan letaknya didalam rongga dada. Jenis tumor paru dibagi untuk tujuan pengobatan, meliputi SCLC ( Small Cell Lung Cancer ) dan NSLC ( Non Small Cell Lung Cancer / Karsinoma Skuamosa, adenokarsinoma, karsinoma sel besar )
Karsinoma bronkogenik adalah tumor ganas paru primer yang berasal dari saluran napas. ( Hood Al sagaff, dkk 1993 )
Kanker paru adalah tumor berbahaya yang tumbuh diparu, sebagian besar kanker paru berasal dari sel-sel didalam paru tapi dapat juga berasal dari bagian tubuh lain yang terkena kanker. ( Zerich 150105 Weblog, by Erich )

2. ETIOLOGI
( Amin Zulkifli, Ilmu Penyakit Dalam Ed. IV, hal 1005 )
Penyebab / faktor pendukung dari kanker paru, antara lain :
1.Merokok
2.Terpapar asap rokok
3.Paparan zat karsinogen ( asbestos, radiasi ion, radon arse )
4.Polusi udara
5.Genetik

3. PATOFISIOLOGI
( Zerich 150105′ weblog )
Sebab-sebab keganasan tumor masih belum jelas, tetapi virus, faktor lingkungan, faktor hormonal dan faktor genetik semuanya berkaitan dengan resiko terjadinya tumor. Permulaan terjadinya tumor dimulai dengan adanya zat yang bersifat intiation yang merangasang permulaan terjadinya perubahan sel. Diperlukan perangsangan yang lama dan berkesinambungan untuk memicu timbulnya penyakit tumor.
Initiati agen biasanya bisa berupa nunsur kimia, fisik atau biologis yang berkemampuan bereaksi langsung dan merubah struktur dasar dari komponen genetik ( DNA ). Keadaan selanjutnya diakibatkan keterpaparan yang lama ditandai dengan berkembangnya neoplasma dengan terbentuknya tumor, hal ini berlangsung lama meingguan sampai tahunan.
Kanker paru bervariasi sesuai tipe sel daerah asal dan kecepatan pertumbuhan. Empat tipe sel primer pada kanker paru adalah karsinoma epidermoid ( sel skuamosa ). Karsinoma sel kecil ( sel oat ), karsinoma sel besar ( tak terdeferensiasi ) dan adenokarsinoma. Sel skuamosa dan karsinoma sel kecil umumnya terbentuk di jalan napas utama bronkial. Karsinoma sel kecil umumnya terbentuk dijalan napas utama bronkial. Karsinoma sel besar dan adenokarsinoma umumnya tumbuh dicabang bronkus perifer dan alveoli. Karsuinoma sel besar dan karsinoma sel oat tumbuh sangat cepat sehigga mempunyai progrosis buruk. Sedangkan pada sel skuamosa dan adenokar. Paru merupakan organ yang elastis, berbentuk kerucut dan letaknya di dalam rongga dada atau toraksinoma prognosis baik karena pertumbuhan sel ini lambat.

4. MANIFESTASI KLINIK
manifestasi klinik pada penderita tumor paru yaitu (www mediaindonesia.co.id) :
a. Batuk yang terus menerus dan berkepanjangan
b. Napas pendek-pendek dan suara parau
c. Batuk berdarah dan berdahak
d. Nyeri pada dada, ketika batuk dan menarik napas yang dalam
e. Hilang nafsu makan dan berat badan

5. KOMPLIKASI
- Hematorak
- Pneumotorak
- Empiema
- Endokarditis
- Abses paru
- Atelektasis

6. PEMERIKSAAN PENUNJANG
( Barbara, Engram, hal.7, Rencana Asuhan Keperawatan Medikal Bedah )
Pemeriksaan Penunjang
a.Foto dada menunjukkan sisi lesi
b.Analisis sputum untuk sitologi menyatakan tipe sel kanker
c.Skan tomografi komputer dan tomogram paru menunjukkan lokasi tumor dan ukuran tumor
d.Bronkoskopi dapat dilakukan untuk memperoleh sample untuk biopsi dan mengumpulkan hapusan
bronkial tumor yang terjadi dicabang bronkus
e.Aspirasi dengan janim dan biopsi jaringan paru dapat dilakukan jika pemeriksaan radiologi
menunjukan lesi di paru-paru perifer
f.Radionuklide scan terhadap organ-organ lain menentukan luasnya netastase ( otak, hepar tulang,
limpa )
g.Mediastinoskopi menentukan apakah tumor telah metastase telah metastase ke limfe mediastinum

7. PENATALAKSANAAN MEDIK
( At a Glance, Medicine, Patrisk Davey, hal. 203 )
1.Pembedahan, memiliki kemungkinan kesembuhan terbaik, namun hanya < 25% kasus yang bisa
dioperasi dan hanya 25% diantaranya ( 5% dari semua kasus ) yang telah hidup setelah 5 tahun.
Tingkat mortalitas perioperatif sebesar 3% pada lobektomi dan 6% pada pneumonektomi
2.Radioterapi radikal, digunakan pada kasus kanker paru bukan sel kecil yang tidak bisa dioperasi.
Tetapi radikal sesuai untuk penyakit yang bersifat lokal dan hanya menyembuhklan sedikit
diantaranya.
3.Radioterapi paliatif, untuk hemoptisis, batuk, sesak napas atau nyeri lokal
4.Kemoterapi, digunakan pada kanker paru sel kecil, karena pembedahan tidak pernah sesuai dengan
histologi kanker jenis ini. Peran kemoterapi pada kanker bukan sel kecil belum jelas.
5.Terapi endobronkia, seperti kerioterapi, tetapi laser atau penggunaan stent dapat memulihkan gejala
dengan cepat pada pasien dengan penyakit endobronkial yang signifikan
6.Perawatan faliatif, opiat terutama membantu mengurangi nyeri dan dispnea. Steroid membantu
mengurangi gejala non spesifik dan memperbaiki selera makan

8. PENATALAKSANAAN KEPERAWATAN
- Bantu pasien untuk mencari posisi yang paling sedikit nyerinya
- Dalam tindakan psikologis kurangi ansietas dengan memberikan informasi yang sering, sederhana, jelas tentang apa yang sedang dilakukan untuk
- mengatasi kondisi dan apa makna respons terhadap pengobatan.

9. PENGKAJIAN
A. Pengumpulan Data
1. Keadaan umum: lemah, sesak yang disertai dengan nyeri dada.
2. Kebutuhan dasar:
- Pola makan : nafsu makan berkurang karena adanya sekret dan terjadi kesulitan menelan
(disfagia), penurunan berat badan.
- Pola minum : frekuensi minum meningkat (rasa haus)
- Pola tidur : susah tidur karena adanya batuk dan nyeri dada.
- Aktivitas : keletihan, kelemahan

3. Pemeriksaan fisik
- Sistem pernafasan
• Sesak nafas, nyeri dada
• Batuk produktif tak efektif
• Suara nafas: mengi pada inspirasi
• Serak, paralysis pita suara.
- Sistem kardiovaskuler
• tachycardia, disritmia
• menunjukkan efusi (gesekan pericardial)
- Sistem gastrointestinal
• Anoreksia, disfagia, penurunan intake makanan, berat badan menurun.
- Sistem urinarius
Peningkatan frekuensi/jumlah urine.
- Sistem neurologis
• Perasaan takut/takut hasil pembedahan
• Kegelisahan
4. Data Penunjang
- Foto dada, PA dan lateral
- CT scan/MRI
- Bronchoscope
- Sitologi
TTB, biopsy kelenjar getah bening leher.

B. Pengelompokan Data
1. Data Subjektif
Perasaan lemah, Sesak nafas, nyeri dada, Batuk tak efektif, Serak, haus, Anoreksia,
disfalgia, berat badan menurun, Peningkatan frekuensi/jumlah urine, Takut
2. Data Objektif
Batuk produktif, Tachycardia/disritmia, Menunjukkan efusi, Sianosis, pucat, Edema, Demam
Gelisah

10. DIAGNOSA KEPERAWATAN
( Doenges, Marylin, hal 191 dan Engram, Barbara ( Zerich 150105, weblog ))
1.Tidak efektif bersihan jalan napas berhubungan dengan obstruksi bronkial sekunder karena invasi
tumor
2.Gangguan rasa nyaman nyeri berhubungan dengan penekanan saraf oleh tumor paru
3.Ketakutan / ansietas berhubungan dengan ancaman / perubahan status kesehatan
( Xerich. 150105′s weblog )
( Engtram, Barbara.1999. Rencana Asuhan Keperawatan Medikal Bedah. Vol 1. Jakarta : EGC )

11. RENCANA KEPERAWATAN
( Doenges, Marilyn, dkk.2000.Rencana Asuhan Keperawatan. Ed. 3. Jakarta : EGC )
1. Tidak efektifnya bersihan jalan napas berhubungan dengan obstruksi.
Intervensi
1.Auskultasi dada untuk karakter bunyi napas atau adanya sekreat.
Rasional : Pernapasan bising, ronki dan menunjukkan tertahannya sekreat / obstruksi jalan napas
2.Observasi jumlah dan karakter sputum / aspirasi sekret. Selidiki jalan perubahan sesuai indikasi
Rasional : Peningkatan jumlah sekret tidak berwarna ( atau berck darah 1 berair awalnya normal
dan harus menurun sesuai kemajuan penyembuhan
3.Dorong masukan cairan per oral ( sedikitnya 2500 ml / hari ) dalam toleransi jantung.
Rasional : Hidrasi adekuat untuk mempertahankan sekreat hilang / peningkatan keluaran

4.Kaji nyeri / ketidak nyamanan dan obati dengan dosis rutin dan lakukan latihan pernapasan
Rasional : Mendorong pasien untu bergerak, batuk lebih efektif dan napas lebih dalam untuk
mencegah kegagalan napas. ( pernapasan )
5.Berikan atau bantu dengan IPPB, spirometriinsentif, meniup botol, drainase postural / perkusi
sesuai indikasi.
Rasional : Memperbaiki ekspansi paru / vemntilasi dan mudahkan pembuangan sekret.
Catatan : Drainase postuural dapat dikotraisdikasikan pada beberapa pasien dan pada setiap
kejadian harus dilakukan untuk mencegah gangguan pernapasan dan ketidaknyamanan insisi.
6.Gunakan oksigen, humidifikasi / nebuliser. Berikan cairan tambahan melalui IV sesuai indikasi
Rasional : Memberikan hidrasi maksimal membantu penghilangan / pengenceran sekret untuk
meningkatkan pengeluaran

2. Gangguan rasa nyaman nyeri berhubungan dengan penekaran saraf oleh tumor paru
Intervensi
1.Tanyakan pasien tentang nyeri. Tentukan karakteristik nyeri ( P,Q,R,S,T ) misal : terus-menerus,
sakit menusuk, terbakar. Buat skala nyeri 0-10 rentang intensitasnya.
Rasional : Membantu dalam mengevaluasi gejala nyeri karena kanker yang dapat melibatkan
visera, saraf atau jaringan tulang. Penggunaan skala rentang membantu pasien dalam
mengkaji tingkat nyeri dan memberikan alat unutk evaluasi keefektifan analgetik,
meningkatkan kontrol nyeri
2.Kaji pertanyaan verbal dan non verbal nyeri pasien
Rasional : Ketidak sesuaian antara petunjuk verbal atau non verbal dapat memberikan petunjuk
derajat nyeri, kebutuhan / keefektifan intervensi
3.Berikan tindakan kenyamanan. Misal : sering ubah posisi, pijat punggung, sokongan bantal,
dorong penggunaan teknik relaksasi, misal : visualisasi, bimbingan imajinasi danaktivitas hiburan
yang tepat.
Rasional : Meningkatkan relaksasi dan pengalihan perhatian. Menghilangkan ketidak nyamanan
dan meningkatkan efek terapeutik analgesik
4.Bantu aktivitas perawatan diri, pernapasan / latihan tangan dan ambulasi
Rasional : Mencegah kelemahan yang tidak perlu dan regangan insisi
Mendorong dan membantu fisik mungkin diperlukan untuk beberapa waktu sebelum
pasien merasa percaya diri untuk melakukan aktivitas ini karena nyeri atau takut nyeri
5.Berikan analgetik rutin sesuai indikasi, khususnya 45-60 menit sebelum tindakan napas dalam /
latihan batuk. Bantu sengan PAC atau analgesik melalui kateter epidural.
Rasional : Mempertahankan kadar obat lebih konstan menghindari “ puncak ” periode nyeri, alat
dalam menyembuhkan otot dan memperbaiki fungsi pernapasan dan kenyamann /
koping emosi

3. Ketakutan / ansietas berhubungan dengan ancaman / perubahan status kesehatan
Intervensi
1.Evaluasi tingkat pemahaman pasien / orang terdekat tentang diagnosa
Rasional : Pasien atau orang terdekat mendengar atau mengasimilasi informasi baru yang
meliputi perubahan ada gambaran diri dan pola hidup
2.Akui rasa takut / masalah pasien dan dorong mengekspresikan perasaan
Rasional : Dukungan memampukan pasien membuka / menerima kenyataan kanker dan
pengobatan
3.Berikan kesempatan untuk bertanya dan jawab dengan jujur. Yakinkan bahwa pasien dan
pemberi perawatan mempunyai pemahaman yang sama.
Rasional : Membuat kepercayaan dan menurunkan kesalahan persepsi atau salh interprestasi
terhadap informasi

4.Terima penyangkalan pasien tapi jangan dikuatkan
Rasional : Bila penyangkalan ektrim atau ansietas mempengaruhi kemajuan penyembuhan,
menghadapi isu pasien perlu dijelaskan dan membuka cara penyelesaian
5.Catat komentar atau perilaku yang menunjukkan menerima dan atau menggunakan strategi
efektif menerima situasi
Rasional : Takut atau ansietas menurun, pasien mulai menerima / secara positif dengan
kenyataan. Indiokator kesiapan pasien untuk menerima tanggung jawab untuk
berpartisipasi dalam penyembuhan dan untuk berpartisipasi dalam penyembuhan dan
untuk mulai hidup lagi.

12. DAFTAR PUSTAKA
1. Alsagaaaff, Hood. dkk. 1993. Pengantar Ilmu Penyakit Paru. Surabaya : AirLangga University Press.
2. Amin, Zulkifli. 1996. Ilmu Penyakit Dalam Edisi IV. Jilid II. Jakarta : Erlangga
3. Davey, Patrick. 2003. At a Glance Medicine. Jakarta : Erlangga.
4. Doengoes, Marylin. dkk. 2000. Rencana Asuhan Keperawatan : Pedoman Untuk Perencanaan dan 5. 5. Pendokumentasian Perawatan Pasien. Edisi 3. Alih bahasa : I Made Kariasa dan Ni Made S. Jakarta :
EGC
6. Engram, Barbara. 1998. Rencana Asuhan Keperawatan Medikal Bedah. Volume I. Jakarta : EGC

Download TUMOR PARU DISINI

By: MAMMY COFFEE & EATRY On 04.19

Continue Reading

LINGUISTIK SEMANTICS

KATA PENGANTAR

Puji syukur kami panjatkan kehadirat Allah SWT yang telah melimpahkan rahmat dan hidayahNya kepada kita semua sehingga pada kesempatan ini saya  dapat menyelesaikan maklah yang berjudul Linguistic “semantic”.

Saya menyadari bahwa dalam penyusunan makalah  ini jauh dari sempurna, baik dari isi dan strukturnya. Untuk itu saya mohon saran dan kritik yang bersifat membangun agar di kesempatan mendatang kami dapat lebih baik lagi. semoga makalah ini dapat berguna bagi siapa saja terutama bagi teman-teman yang hobi atau ingin tahu lebih banyak tentang system ekonomi syariah.

Demikian makalah ini saya buat semoga ada manfaatnya bagi kita semua.

Palopo, Juni       2011

   Penyusun

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE…………………………………………………………………………………….!

TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………..!!

BAB I  DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………….1

A.      SEMANTICS………………………………………………………………………...1

2. Linguistics ……………………………………………………………………………1

C.      Montague grammar……………………………………………………………………2

D.      Dynamic turn in semantics…………………………………………………………....2

E.       Prototype theory……………………………………………………………………...4

F.       Theories in semantics……………………………………………………………........5

1.      Model theoretic semantics………………………………………………………...5

2.      Formal (of truth-conditional) semantics…………………………………………..5

3.      exical & conceptual semantics……………………………………………………5

4.      Lexical semantics…………………………………………………………………5

5.      Computational semantics…………………………………………………………6

6.      Computer science…………………………………………………………………6

7.      Programming languages…………………………………………………………..6

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………….8

BAB I

DISCUSSION

A.        SEMANTICS

Semantics (from Greek sēmantiká, neuter plural of sēmantikós)  is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotata.

Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning that is used by humans to express themselves through language. Other forms of semantics include the semantics of programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.

The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many formal inquiries, over a long period of time, most notably in the field of formal semantics. In linguistics, it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols as used by agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts.^[3] Within this view, sounds, facial expressions, body language, proxemics have semantic (meaningful) content, and each has several branches of study. In written language, such things as paragraph structure and punctuation have semantic content; in other forms of language, there is other semantic content.

The formal study of semantics intersects with many other fields of inquiry, including lexicology, syntax, pragmatics, etymology and others, although semantics is a well-defined field in its own right, often with synthetic properties.^[4] In philosophy of language, semantics and reference are related fields. Further related fields include philology, communication, and semiotics. The formal study of semantics is therefore complex.

Semantics contrasts with syntax, the study of the combinatorics of units of a language (without reference to their meaning), and pragmatics, the study of the relationships between the symbols of a language, their meaning, and the users of the language.

In international scientific vocabulary semantics is also called semasiology.

B.        Linguistics

In linguistics, semantics is the subfield that is devoted to the study of meaning, as inherent at the levels of words, phrases, sentences, and larger units of discourse (referred to as texts). The basic area of study is the meaning of signs, and the study of relations between different linguistic units: homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, paronyms, hypernymy, hyponymy, meronymy, metonymy, holonymy, linguistic compounds. A key concern is how meaning attaches to larger chunks of text, possibly as a result of the composition from smaller units of meaning. Traditionally, semantics has included the study of sense and denotative reference, truth conditions, argument structure, thematic roles, discourse analysis, and the linkage of all of these to syntax.

C.        Montague grammar

In the late 1960s, Richard Montague proposed a system for defining semantic entries in the lexicon in terms of the lambda calculus. In these terms, the syntactic parse of the sentence John ate every bagel would consist of a subject (John) and a predicate (ate every bagel); Montague showed that the meaning of the sentence as a whole could be decomposed into the meanings of its parts and relatively few rules of combination. The logical predicate thus obtained would be elaborated further, e.g. using truth theory models, which ultimately relate meanings to a set of Tarskiian universals, which may lie outside the logic. The notion of such meaning atoms or primitives is basic to the language of thought hypothesis from the 1970s.

Despite its elegance, Montague grammar was limited by the context-dependent variability in word sense, and led to several attempts at incorporating context, such as:

1. situation semantics (1980s): truth-values are incomplete, they get assigned based on context
2. generative lexicon (1990s): categories (types) are incomplete, and get assigned based on context

D.        Dynamic turn in semantics

Semantics

Language · Linguistics

Formal semantics (logic & linguistics) Lexis Lexical semantics Statistical semantics Structural semantics Prototype semantics Lexicology Semantic analysis Latent semantic analysis Theory of descriptions Force Dynamics Unsolved problems Semantic matching Analysis (machine) Abstract semantic graph Semantic Web Semantic wiki Semantic File System Abstract interpretation Formal semantics of  programming languages Denotational semantics Axiomatic semantics Operational semantics Action semantics Algebraic semantics Categorical semantics Concurrency semantics Game semantics Predicate transformer..

v · d · e

In Chomskian linguistics there was no mechanism for the learning of semantic relations, and the nativist view considered all semantic notions as inborn. Thus, even novel concepts were proposed to have been dormant in some sense. This view was also thought unable to address many issues such as metaphor or associative meanings, and semantic change, where meanings within a linguistic community change over time, and qualia or subjective experience. Another issue not addressed by the nativist model was how perceptual cues are combined in thought, e.g. in mental rotation.

This view of semantics, as an innate finite meaning inherent in a lexical unit that can be composed to generate meanings for larger chunks of discourse, is now being fiercely debated in the emerging domain of cognitive linguistics and also in the non-Fodorian camp in Philosophy of Language. The challenge is motivated by:

1. factors internal to language, such as the problem of resolving indexical or anaphora (e.g. this x, him, last week). In these situations "context" serves as the input, but the interpreted utterance also modifies the context, so it is also the output. Thus, the interpretation is necessarily dynamic and the meaning of sentences is viewed as context change potentials instead of propositions.
2. factors external to language, i.e. language is not a set of labels stuck on things, but "a toolbox, the importance of whose elements lie in the way they function rather than their attachments to things." This view reflects the position of the later Wittgenstein and his famous game example, and is related to the positions of Quine, Davidson, and others.

A concrete example of the latter phenomenon is semantic underspecification – meanings are not complete without some elements of context. To take an example of a single word, "red", its meaning in a phrase such as red book is similar to many other usages, and can be viewed as compositional.^[9] However, the colours implied in phrases such as "red wine" (very dark), and "red hair" (coppery), or "red soil", or "red skin" are very different. Indeed, these colours by themselves would not be called "red" by native speakers. These instances are contrastive, so "red wine" is so called only in comparison with the other kind of wine (which also is not "white" for the same reasons). This view goes back to de Saussure:

Each of a set of synonyms like redouter ('to dread'), craindre ('to fear'), avoir peur ('to be afraid') has its particular value only because they stand in contrast with one another. No word has a value that can be identified independently of what else is in its vicinity.

and may go back to earlier Indian views on language, especially the Nyaya view of words as indicators and not carriers of meaning.

An attempt to defend a system based on propositional meaning for semantic underspecification can be found in the Generative Lexicon model of James Pustejovsky, who extends contextual operations (based on type shifting) into the lexicon. Thus meanings are generated on the fly based on finite context.

E.         Prototype theory

Another set of concepts related to fuzziness in semantics is based on prototypes. The work of Eleanor Rosch in the 1970s led to a view that natural categories are not characterizable in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions, but are graded (fuzzy at their boundaries) and inconsistent as to the status of their constituent members.

Systems of categories are not objectively "out there" in the world but are rooted in people's experience. These categories evolve as learned concepts of the world – meaning is not an objective truth, but a subjective construct, learned from experience, and language arises out of the "grounding of our conceptual systems in shared embodiment and bodily experience".^[12] A corollary of this is that the conceptual categories (i.e. the lexicon) will not be identical for different cultures, or indeed, for every individual in the same culture. This leads to another debate (see the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis or Eskimo words for snow).

F.         Theories in semantics

1.      Model theoretic semantics

Originates from Montague's work (see above). A highly formalized theory of natural language semantics in which expressions are assigned denotations (meanings) such as individuals, truth values, or functions from one of these to another. The truth of a sentence, and more interestingly, its logical relation to other sentences, is then evaluated relative to a model.

2.      Formal (of truth-conditional) sema

Pioneered by the philosopher Donald Davidson, another formalized theory, which aims to associate each natural language sentence with a meta-language description of the conditions under which it is true, for example: `Snow is white' is true if and only if snow is white. The challenge is to arrive at the truth conditions for any sentences from fixed meanings assigned to the individual words and fixed rules for how to combine them. In practice, truth-conditional semantics is similar to model-theoretic semantics; conceptually, however, they differ in that truth-conditional semantics seeks to connect language with statements about the real world (in the form of meta-language statements), rather than with abstract models.

3.       Lexical & conceptual semantics

This theory is an effort to explain properties of argument structure. The assumption behind this theory is that syntactic properties of phrases reflect the meanings of the words that head them. With this theory, linguists can better deal with the fact that subtle differences in word meaning correlate with other differences in the syntactic structure that the word appears in. The way this is gone about is by looking at the internal structure of words. These small parts that make up the internal structure of words are referred to as semantic primitives.

4.      Lexical semantics

A linguistic theory that investigates word meaning. This theory understands that the meaning of a word is fully reflected by its context. Here, the meaning of a word is constituted by its contextual relations. Therefore, a distinction between degrees of participation as well as modes of participation are made. In order to accomplish this distinction any part of a sentence that bears a meaning and combines with the meanings of other constituents is labeled as a semantic constituent. Semantic constituents that can not be broken down into more elementary constituents is labeled a minimal semantic constituent.

5.      Computational semantics

Computational semantics is focused on the processing of linguistic meaning. In order to do this concrete algorithms and architectures are described. Within this framework the algorithms and architectures are also analyzed in terms of decidability, time/space complexity, data structures which they require and communication protocols.

6.      Computer science

In computer science, the term semantics refers to the meaning of languages, as opposed to their form (syntax). Additionally, the term semantic is applied to certain types of data structures specifically designed and used for representing information content.

7.      Programming languages

The semantics of programming languages and other languages is an important issue and area of study in computer science. Like the syntax of a language, its semantics can be defined exactly.

For instance, the following statements use different syntaxes, but cause the same instructions to be executed:

x += y	(C, Java, Perl, Python, Ruby, PHP, etc.)
x := x + y	(Pascal)
ADD x, y	(Intel 8086 Assembly Language)
LET X = X + Y	(early BASIC)
x = x + y	(most BASIC dialects, Fortran)
ADD Y TO X GIVING X	(COBOL)
(incf x y)	(Common Lisp)

Generally these operations would all perform an arithmetical addition of 'y' to 'x' and store the result in a variable called 'x'.

Various ways have been developed to describe the semantics of programming languages formally, building on mathematical logic:

a.       Operational semantics: The meaning of a construct is specified by the computation it induces when it is executed on a machine. In particular, it is of interest how the effect of a computation is produced.

b.      Denotational semantics: Meanings are modelled by mathematical objects that represent the effect of executing the constructs. Thus only the effect is of interest, not how it is obtained.

c.       Axiomatic semantics: Specific properties of the effect of executing the constructs are expressed as assertions. Thus there may be aspects of the executions that are ignored.

REFERENCES

1.       Kitcher, Philip; Salmon, Wesley C. (1989). Scientific Explanation. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. p. 35. 

2.      Barsalou, L.; Perceptual Symbol Systems, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(4), 1999

3.       Langacker, Ronald W. (1999). Grammar and Conceptualization. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyer. ISBN 3110166038. 

4.      Peregrin, Jaroslav (2003). Meaning: The Dynamic Turn. Current Research in the Semantics/Pragmatics Interface. London: Elsevier.

  

Download  LINGUISTIK SEMANTICS DI SINI

By: MAMMY COFFEE & EATRY On 03.46

Continue Reading